Jahangir (part I)

Jahangir was born on 9 September 1569 at Fatehpur Sikri. His father, Akbar, really doted on him but the relationship got bitter as Jahangir came of age. Jahangir openly rebelled against his father at first, but was evenutally reconciled; and on Akbar's death in November 1605, he assumed the throne. Though his own son, Khusrau, then seventeen years old, led a military campaign against his father, Jahangir captured him and rendered him blind. In 1611, Jahangir met, wooed, and married Mehrunissa, the young widow of a Mughal officer. A beautiful and strong woman, she soon became Jahangir's favorite queen and assumed the title of Nur Jahan, 'Light of the World'. Her father, Itimad ñud-daulah, was elevated to the position of chief minister; her brother, Asaf Khan, became a nobleman at the court; and his daughter, Mumtaz Mahal, was married to Khurram (later Shah Jahan), Jahangir's other son, in 1612. Nur Jahan herself came to exercise considerable influence over her husband, and Jahangir is said to have relied heavily on her advice.

Babur

Babar was more of a soldier than a politician. It has been suggested by historians that the government he set up was saifi (by the sword ) and not qalami (by the pen). Considerable parts of his empire were ruled by his ministers with full sovereignity. He was an orthodox Sunni muslim and loved architecture and music; he was also a master of Turki, his mother tongue, as well as Persian. The chronicles of his life, the Babarnama, remains widely used and is a masterpiece of that genre of literature. Babar appears not to have been enamored of Delhi and India, and in recent years his name has been mired in controversy. A mosque by the name of Babri masjid, apparently built in 1526 at his command, was destroyed on 6 December 1992 by Hindu militants. They claim that a Hindu temple, marking the site of Lord Rama's birth, was destroyed at Babar's orders, and a mosque built at that very site. For Hindu militants and chauvinists, Babar's name has become synonymous with the history of Muslim tyranny and oppression, but almost nothing in the historical record warrants this reading.

Babar nominated his son Humayun as his successor and died on 30 December 1530 at the age of forty eight.

Emperor Babar

The Mughal empire in India was founded by Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babar, a Chaghatai Turkish ruler born on 14 February 1483. He was the son of the ruler of the petty kingdom of Farghana and inherited his father's precarious throne when he was but eleven years old. Though it was Babar's dream to rule Central Asia and capture Samarqand, he had fierce opposition from Persians and the Afghans. Consequently he turned his eyes from the West to the East, from the steppes of Central Asia to the fertile plains of Hindustan [India].


North India was at that time ruled by Afghan chieftains known as the Lodis. Babar invaded the Lodi-governed Punjab several times from his capital at Kabul before winning a decisive victory. In 1526, at the battle of Panipat, only a few miles from Delhi, Babar's small but well-trained army of 12,000 men defeated a much larger force under the command of Ibrahim Lodi, the sultan of Delhi.


In the following year, Babar led his army to victory over a confederacy of Rajput kings headed by Rana Sanga, ruler of the state of Mewar of Rajasthan. Babar's small army defeated the eighty thousand strong army of the Rajputs. These brisk victories gave Babar, who had extraordinary military acumen, a base from which to consolidate his rule in Northern India. His guns and his long-practiced use of the enveloping tactics of Central Asian cavalry proved to be effective against the Rajputs as well as the Afghans. His kingdom included Central Asian territories, Kabul, the Punjab, Delhi, and other parts of North India as far south as Gwalior and as far east as the Bihar.

Mughal Empire from Akbar to Aurangzeb

Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, who took the title of Jahangir. In his reign (1605-1627), Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The courtly culture of the Mughals flourished under his rule; like his great grand-father, Babar, he had an interest in gardens, and Mughal painting probably reached its zenith in Jahangir's time. Jahangir married Nur Jahan, "Light of the World", in 1611. Shortly after his death in October 1627, his son, Shah Jahan, succeeded to the throne. He inherited a vast and rich empire; and at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world, exhibiting a degree of centralized control rarely matched before. Shah Jahan left behind an extraordinarily rich architectural legacy, which includes the Taj Mahal and the old city of Delhi, Shahjahanabad. As he apparently lay dying in 1658, a war of succession broke out between his four sons. The two principal claimants to the throne were Dara Shikoh, who was championed by the those nobles and officers who were committed to the eclectic policies of previous rulers, and Aurangzeb, who was favored by powerful men more inclined to turn the Mughal Empire into an Islamic state subject to the laws of the Sharia. It is Aurangzeb who triumphed, and though the Mughal Empire saw yet further expansion in the early years of his long reign (1658-1707), by the later part of the seventeenth century the empire was beginning to disintegrate.

Aurangzeb remains a highly controversial figure, and no monarch has been more subjected to the communalist reading of Indian history. He is admired by Muslim historians for enforcing the law of the Sharia and for disavowing the policies pursued by Akbar; among Hindus, laymen and historians alike, he is remembered as a Muslim fanatic and bigot. In the event, Aurangzeb's far-flung empire eventually eluded his grasp, and considerable disaffection appears to have been created among the peasantry. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, many of his vassals established themselves as sovereign rulers, and so began the period of what are called "successor states". The Mughal Empire survived until 1857, but its rulers were, after 1803, pensioners of the East India Company. The last emperor, the senile Bahadur Shah Zafar, was put on trial for allegedly leading the rebels of the 1857 mutiny and for fomenting sedition. He was convicted and transported to Rangoon, to spend the remainder of his life on alien soil.

The Mughal Empire

The great grandson of Tamerlane, Babar, who on his mother's side was descended from the famous Genghiz Khan, came to India in 1526 at the request of an Indian governor who sought Babar's help in his fight against Ibrahim Lodi, the last head of the Delhi Sultanate. Babar defeated Lodi at Panipat, not far from Delhi, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who gave the empire its first distinctive features. But it is Humayun's son, Akbar the Great, who is conventionally described as the glory of the empire. Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605, and extended his empire as far to the west as Afghanistan, and as far south as the Godavari river. Akbar, though a Muslim, is remembered as a tolerant ruler, and he even started a new faith, Din-i-Ilahi, which was an attempt to blend Islam with Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, and other faiths. He won over the Hindus by naming them to important military and civil positions, by conferring honors upon them, and by marrying a Hindu princess.

Monuments of the great dynasty of the Mughals

The Mughal state was well aware of the declamatory power of architecture and used it as a means of self-representation and an instrument of royalty, write scholars Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom (1994). The most remarkable monuments of the great dynasty of the Mughals included:

1-Humayun's tomb at Delhi

2-the tomb of Khan-i Khanan in south Nizamuddin

3- the Red Fort at Agra

4- the mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandara outside Agra

5-the tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara across the Ravi from Lahore

6- the tomb of Itimad al-Dawleh at Agra

7-the Taj Mahal at Agra; the tomb of Aurangzeb's wife at Aurangabad

8- and the Nawab Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi.

The Legacy of Islamic Empires and their Arts

Under the Mughals, India was the heart of a great Islamic empire and a prolific center of Islamic culture and learning. According to historian Gavin Hambly, the Mughals provided the setting for a brilliant court and a vigorous cultural life which was equal to Isfahan under the Safavid Shahs or Istanbul under the Ottoman Sultans.
The Mughals lived and reigned in India from 1526 to 1858 AD. Their dynasty was the greatest, richest and longest-lasting Muslim dynasty to rule India. This dynasty produced the finest and most elegant arts and architecture in the history of Muslim dynasties.
The name Mughal, writes art historian Barbara Brend (1991), is an Indian version of Mongal; to dwellers in India, the term referred to anyone from Central Asia. Hambly notes that the favorite cities of the Mughals included Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore.

Common Scenes of Paintings

In paintings, women appear frequently as dancers, singers, maid servants or in single portraits, especially out of all royal ladies Nur Jehan and Mumtaz Mahal appear consistently, holding flower or wine cup against a landscape background. Idealized females were painted, with widened eyes and heavy greyish brownish shading on cheeks.
Most of common scenes are love scenes enjoying company of lover or awaiting arrival, drinking activities such as bathing scenes, drinking parties, Holi and birth scenes and other various scenes with different activities and compositions are astrologers preparing prince’s horoscope, dancing and drums beating and child and mother surrounded by harem ladies.
Proud race Mughals, were ardent lover of beauty and too royal ladies famed for their beauty, indulged undoubtedly in aesthetic pleasure form. In Mughals painting on the women’s treatment deeper insight into their life style, in-depth research and further investigation is required.

Gulbadan’s accounts

Gulbadan’s (daughter of Babur) account, in her memoirs we come to know that Harem in Kabul was comparatively free, the women were unveiled, went on picnics, hunting and hawking. They rode, played cards, chess, watched polo from the citadel walls and practiced archery. Meena Bazaars were also arranged for their amusement, where ladies wore latest fashions and drank wines of their choices. In one of these royal meena bazaar Shah Jahan struck by the unrivalled beauty of Mumtaz Mahal. One of the common features of the feast was music and dance.

Pratapaditya Pal describes Zenana

Pratapaditya Pal describes “court women wore equally beautiful clothes that often skillfully combined transparent and opaque fabrics in very enticing way.”
Mughals kept their ladies in Harem, though were respected, honoured and in the states politics participated. In Zenana, all the attendants were females; no man was allowed to enter within the Zenana. Though Maharatta ladies live in purdah but strict speculation were for Muslim ladies. Even if any woman want to ride on horse back only allowed veiled. Hindus never kept their women in purdah until the Mohammedans conquered their country. They induced to follow, because their unveiled women being subject to insult. Whenever the Hindu and Muslim ladies in the royal Zenana had been enjoying the sports of the water, to jump from verandah roof into below water came up again to jump. During sport, guards were stationed around to prevent the intrusion of any profane eye on the sacredness of the Zenana. But from the

An excerpt out of Fanny Parks book

Fanny Parks has written in her diary ‘Wandering of a Pilgrim, in search of the Picturesque’ a description of Zenana, she visited in early 19th century, lived in British India. One can get a fair idea of the upper class’s ladies life style. During her stay, she met various royal ladies. Under the care of Captain Ross she met her Highness Baiza Bai, widow of late Maharaja Daulat Rao. She ruled the kingdom for nine years, being queen of Gwalior. When she went to meet her highness left her shoes outside pardah to pay respect to that lady of rank. She found her seated on embroidered gaddi, with Gaja Raja Sahib, her grand daughter, and ladies attendants standing around her. She was dressed in plainest red silk, wore no ornaments except pair of small plain gold bars as bracelets, being widow put jewellery aside. Her grand daughter was wearing typical Maharatta dress. Mountain women were used to wear long dresses with long sleeves, tight to the elbows. A piece of silk some twenty yards or more they wind around them as a petticoat and also give effect of trousers. Hair was plaited and bound into a knot at the back of their head and low down. Eyes were edged with surma and their feet hands dyed with henna, on their feet and ankles were curious silver ornaments, toe rings of peculiar form. In the nostril was very large and brilliant nose ring. From her throat to waist, hands and arms were ornamented with strings of magnificent pearls and jewels. Girls wore caps with tassels and married women had a high cone dress ending in a plume of feathers and from it hung a veil. But Indian hot season forced them to change their style.

Female in Mughal MIniatures

The Mughal’s dynasty is known for extraordinary talent especially interest in arts. They whole-heartedly encouraged and patronized the court art-----‘Mughal’s Miniatures’, a colourful phase, spanned over three centuries.
Akbar consumed painting passion and had independence of thoughts. It turned to single miniatures for albums from manuscripts illustrations under Jahangir patronage. It was secular art, dealt with court life, durbar scenes, portraits of royal males and females, birds, flowers, animals, forest, hunting and daily life scenes, flora and fauna and love scenes.
Before Mughals advent in sub-continent, during Umayyad period examples of females paintings have survived are the frescoes of Qusayr Amra bath. As describe by a poet ‘if any man hath in his heart a place for fair ladies, then let him go to the fair one in the bath of Saber: It is matchless and graceful, slim-waisted, well-proportioned’. In this palace, women’s bath’s stucco walls had been decorated with paintings. The pictures are semi-nude figures of dancing girls and musicians.
During Jahangir reign Mughal’s paintings achieved height. The art of portraiture, by its royal patron received special attention; accurate portraiture was confined to male noble and courtiers. During Akbar period mostly male courtiers were painted because females were not allowed to appear in the open courts. Female became popular subject during Jahangir period due to powerful influence of Nur Jehan. She had very strong personality. Her creative abilities ranged from costumes designing to hunting.
The Muslim royal ladies had generally lived in separate quarters called ‘Zenana’ or ‘Harem’------apartments inaccessible to strangers, an ample spaced enclosure. Mothers, sisters, wives, daughters, concubines and all relatives of the king housed there.

Jahangir and Imperial album painting

Jahangir’s painters had ability to produce identical copies of work in his collection. In the art of portrait miniature Jahangir’s paintings work miracles. His passion for nature was unrestricted, keen observer of flowers, grass, plants, animals and birds and had fondness of music, poetry, traveling like his ancestors, especially grandfather Babur. He had artistic and aesthetic background from his childhood had been in contact with paintings. That’s why had great involvement in that art form and patronized personally the royal atelia. Popular subject matters were court scenes, flora, fauna and birds. The choice of material reflects Jahangir’s own taste.
The Imperial albums paintings depict Jahangir’s interest in Sufis, Muslim rulers, Princess visiting ascetics. Having great affection for his pets--- cheetah, carrier pigeons and his consideration for the royal stud elephant was famous. He shifted Imperial Library to Lahore from Agra. Lahore became the centre of artistic activity. When visited Lahore found his palace decorated with many paintings. His master artists painted beautiful, refined and high quality art and Mughal miniatures reached its highest peak. His wife Nur Jahan had strong personality with complete control over her husband. Due to her influence female portraits began to appear. Under Jahangir the fusion of style--- India, Persian and European gave force and individuality to Mughal painting.

Akbar--real begetter of Mughal Paintings

During Akbar’s, real begetter of Mughal paintings, under his personal supervision great tradition of Mughal paintings developed and carried on for at least hundred years when Aurangzeb deposed his father Shah Jahan in 1658. Aurangzeb was orthodox and did not patronize his predecessor’s paintings. Mughal dynasty declined after Aurangzeb and then the royal artists and atelier did not receive royal patronage. Till the end of Mughal dynasty in 1857, miniatures were produced but inferior in quality to those produced in Akbar to Shah Jahan’s period. Akbar founded Imperial studio, headed by Mir Sayyed Ali and Khawaja Abdus Samad who trained the court painters. Though Akbar was illiterate but India experienced the extraordinary transformation of art during his reign. The greatest and finest project was copying and illustration of romance. In his studio he employed large number of painters, calligraphers, gilders, paper makers, and colour grinders etc. who were engaged in production of number of illustrated manuscripts. Both the prominent painters played active part in the administration of the studio and seeing that the work was satisfactory and completed on time. They adopted collective approach, that to a single work only two or three artists they assigned. The experienced painters were responsible for composition, drawing and portraiture and younger artists assisted them. He was unorthodox and used to invite philosophers and leaders for discussions and debates from various religions. By blending various cultural values, traditions and religions he as a head created new religion named “Tauhid-e-Illahi”. The same approach he applied to the art and created unique style by blending Persian, Chinese, European and Indian tradition. That’s why the figural scenes, trees, grass, animals are realistic and borders were decorated with flora and fauna, birds etc. to provide quality to these paintings. The most remarkable thing in paintings during his reign was that mostly male courtiers were painted because females were not allowed in open courts. Primary colours are rare, figures are highly modeled and convey distance and the painters had been trained in the Northern Europe . The paintings at his court were so rich, diverse and demands special consideration. His portraits are in profile or half-profile, sometimes stiff. His painters learned their use of colours from European paintings. At his death in 1605 his library was estimated at 24,000 volumes, with a total of 6, 500, 000 rupees.

MINIATURE PAINTINGS DURING AKBAR AND JAHANGIR REIGN

Mughal or miniature paintings could be described as a variety of Islamic paintings practiced in India during sixteenth and seventeenth century.
In the second half of the sixteenth century between the Indian Mughal and West had been intercultural link during Akbar’s reign. Akbar consumed painting passion and other forms of art. He had independence of thoughts and also passion for knowledge about European art, culture and religion. To satiate his thirst lead to develop relationship with Portuguese.
Akbar and Jahangir was great admirer of European art and craft. Due to their admirations Dutch, British and Portuguese too were trying to establish trade relations with Indian Mughals and presented great number of paintings to Emperor Jahangir. Mughal artists copied those paintings and adopted its versions. During this period two different styles emerged--- Mughal style with fine European influence. Prominent Mughal artists like Abul Hasan etc. by combining two techniques—Mughal and European produced admirable personal and romantic works.